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Chain letter

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Email chain letter" redirects here. For email chains in the sense of email threads, see Conversation threading.
For other uses, see Chain letter (disambiguation).

A chain letter is a message that attempts to convince the recipient to make a number of copies and pass them on to a certain number of recipients. The "chain" is an exponentially growing pyramid (a tree graph) that cannot be sustained indefinitely.

Common methods used in chain letters include emotionally manipulative stories, get-rich-quick pyramid schemes, and the exploitation of superstition to threaten the recipient or promise rewards. Originally, chain letters were letters sent by mail; today, chain letters are often sent electronically via email, social network sites, and text messages.

Types

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Chain letters can be broadly categorized:

  1. Hoaxes: These attempt to trick or defraud users. They can be malicious (e.g., instructing users to delete necessary system files disguised as viruses), scams seeking money or personal information (including phishing attacks), or false promises (e.g., rewards from companies like Microsoft for forwarding emails).[1]
  2. Superstition-based (Luck/Misfortune): These letters exploit beliefs in luck or curses. They often promise good fortune (like the Japanese "Lucky Letter" precursor) if the chain is continued or threaten misfortune, bad luck, or even death if the recipient breaks the chain. Examples include the Hawaiian Good Luck Totem[2] and the prominent Japanese phenomenon of Fukō no tegami ("Unlucky Letter").
  3. Urban Legends / Warnings / Petitions: These are designed for redistribution and often claim to warn recipients of a threat (like virus hoaxes), notify them of important information, or ask them to sign something (like petitions to save TV shows[3] or support causes like "Save the Scouts"[4]). These usually have no negative effect aside from wasted time and bandwidth.
  4. Get-Rich-Quick Schemes: Letters promising financial returns for sending money to those earlier in the chain (like the "Send-a-Dime" letter) are a form of pyramid scheme.

In the United States, chain letters that request money or other items of value and promise a substantial return to the participants (such as the infamous Make Money Fast scheme) are illegal under postal lottery and fraud statutes.[5]

Some colleges and military bases have passed regulations attempting to prohibit chain letters in private mail, though distinguishing them from genuine correspondence can be difficult.

Channels

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Print

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Printed Australian chain letter from 2006, with a five-cent coin taped to it as what it calls a "financial eye-catcher"

The original form of chain letters was written or printed on paper, exchanged hand-to-hand or sent via postal mail.

  • Examples date back to at least the 19th century among Muslim pilgrims on the Hajj, promising blessings or curses and requiring replication.[6]
  • In Europe, letters known as "Himmelsbrief" (Heavenly Letters), claiming divine origin, circulated from as early as the 6th century. Initially promising protection for carrying the letter and adhering to religious rules,[7] they evolved by the 20th century to include instructions to copy and send the letter to others for good luck, with warnings of misfortune for failing to do so.[8] Eventually, the religious elements faded, leaving simple luck/misfortune chain letters.[8]
  • The "Prosperity Club" or "Send-a-Dime" letter started in Denver, Colorado in 1935. Based on an earlier luck letter, it instructed recipients to send a dime to the person at the top of a list, add their name to the bottom, and forward it. It quickly overwhelmed post offices.[9][10]
  • In 1964, increased chain letter activity in US college towns prompted a nationwide crackdown by the United States Postal Inspection Service against violations of postal fraud and lottery laws.[11]
  • In Japan, similar phenomena existed historically (see Fukō no tegami).

Email

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Representation of an unlucky email chain letter spread via mobile phone

Email chain letters range from seemingly harmless school projects to disruptive or malicious messages.

  • Common types include virus hoaxes, cyberbullying, phony promises of money or rewards,[12] political petitions,[13][14] and threats of bad luck if not forwarded.[15]
  • An infamous example began "Hey it's Tara and John the directors of MSN..." threatening account deletion if the email wasn't forwarded.[16]
  • In Japan around 1999, email versions of "Fukō no tegami" spread via mobile phones and PHS, often with stark threats like "You will be killed" or "Terrible things will happen" if not forwarded within a short time (e.g., 5 days, 6 recipients).[17][18][19][20] (See #Internet and SNS versions in Japan)

Web communities

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Representation of an unlucky chain letter spread via SNS

Chain letters proliferated on platforms like Myspace (bulletins), YouTube (comments), and Facebook (messages, apps).

  • Examples often involve intimidating stories, like the Carmen Winstead hoax threatening death if not reposted.[21]
  • Promises of secret information upon forwarding are also common.
  • In Japan, platforms like LINE and Twitter/X became common vectors for chain messages, often adapted from earlier email or paper forms. (See #Internet and SNS versions in Japan)

Fukō no tegami (Unlucky Letter) in Japan

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Example of a handwritten Fukō no tegami

A prominent and culturally significant type of chain letter is the Fukō no tegami (不幸の手紙, literally "Unlucky Letter" or "Misfortune Letter"), which became a major social phenomenon in Japan, particularly in the 1970s.[22] It is characterized by its direct threat of misfortune or death upon the recipient if they fail to replicate and send the letter to a specified number of people within a strict time limit.[17][23]

Wording and Characteristics

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Typical examples include phrases like:

  • "This is an unlucky letter, a death god (shinigami) that came to me from Okinawa..."[24] (referencing a supposed origin and invoking supernatural entities).
  • "If you stop it here, misfortune will certainly visit you. A person in Texas stopped it and died five years later."[24] (citing alleged consequences).
  • "You must send this letter to 29 people within 30 hours without changing the text."[24] (giving specific, often demanding, instructions). Variations included different time limits (e.g., 50 hours, 3 days, 1 week) and numbers of recipients (e.g., 10, 29).[25]
  • "I am number XXX." (implying a long chain).
  • "Do not tell anyone you received this letter. If you do, you will surely die."[25] (discouraging consultation).
  • Letters were typically sent anonymously.[26]
  • The personification "I am an unlucky letter" suggested the letter itself possessed agency or supernatural power.[27][28]
  • While initially handwritten (requiring laborious copying in the pre-photocopier era for widespread distribution),[29] later versions used photocopies or faxes.[30] Some were sent as postcards.[31]

A key difference from the earlier "Lucky Letters" (see below) was the anonymity and the focus solely on negative consequences, whereas Lucky Letters often included sender names (or lists of previous senders) and promised good fortune for compliance.[32] The threat in Fukō no tegami also often seemed to emanate from the letter itself, rather than just being a consequence of breaking the chain.[33]

History in Japan

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Precursors and Cultural Context

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English "Lucky Letter" published in the Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, 20 November 1922

While the specific "Fukō no tegami" emerged later, similar concepts involving chain messages linked to fortune or misfortune existed in Japan earlier.

  • Edo period (c. 1820s): A trend involved distributing pairs of Daikokuten images on paper, promising good luck if one copy was kept and the other distributed to 100 homes. This was eventually banned by the shogunate but resurfaced in the early Meiji era.[34][35][36]
  • 1813: Rumors spread that seeing a specific star meant death, avoidable only by eating botamochi.[37][38]
  • 1814: Rumors predicted the world's end, avoidable by re-celebrating New Year's, leading people to put up decorations and make mochi.[37]
  • World War II: Rumors circulated about prophecies from the mythical creature Kudan, suggesting eating azuki rice or ohagi within three days of hearing the prophecy could grant immunity from air raids.[37][39] Another rumor claimed eating only Rakkyō for breakfast prevented bombing, but only if the secret was shared.[37][40]

This cultural familiarity with spreading messages linked to fortune or warding off misfortune likely contributed to the later success of chain letters.[37]

Kōun no tegami (Lucky Letter)

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Japanese "Lucky Letter" example from the Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, 27 January 1922

Beginning around 1922 in Tokyo, a precursor known as the Kōun no tegami (幸運の手紙, "Lucky Letter") became popular.[41][42] Believed to derive from European "Lucky Chain" games or American chain letters prevalent during WWI,[42][31][43] these letters typically instructed the recipient to send copies to a certain number of people (e.g., nine) within a timeframe (e.g., 24 hours) to receive great fortune, warning of misfortune (akuun) if the chain was broken.[44][45]

  • Example text (1922): "For Good Luck. Copy this text onto nine postcards and send them to people you wish good luck for. Great fortune will surely come after nine days. However, if you break this chain of postcards, great misfortune will come instead. Please write within 24 hours of seeing this postcard. This project was started by an American officer and must circle the globe nine times."[nb 1][a]
  • Social Impact: The Lucky Letter became a social phenomenon, frequently discussed in newspapers.[44] It was exploited for political campaigning and advertising due to its low cost.[46][37][47] Despite the promise of good luck, anxiety about the negative consequences of breaking the chain often dominated.[46][43] Unlike Western interpretations focusing on monetary gain/loss, the Japanese interpretation often associated misfortune with physical harm, illness, or death.[48] Many felt compelled to forward the letters out of fear.[48][49] The exponential growth ("mouse arithmetic") was also noted as problematic.[50]
  • Notable Incidents: In 1926, a chain involving high-ranking officials, including Director-General of the Monopoly Bureau Sakanosuke Imakita and former Tokyo Mayor Gotō Shinpei, caused a stir and led to police intervention and reprimands.[42][51][52][53] Political scientist Sakuzō Yoshino received one in 1926, deeming it foolish but criticizing police overreach in trying to suppress it.[54][55][56]
  • Later Variants: Although suppressed after the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake,[34] variants reappeared. A 1935 version mimicking the US "Send-a-Dime" scheme led to an arrest.[57][58] During WWII, an anti-war chain letter circulated.[48][59] Post-war versions continued, including monetary chains ("Fukuun no tegami" - Lucky Fortune Letter)[10][45] and letters causing anxiety, sometimes invoking famous names like Franklin D. Roosevelt or Thomas Edison.[60][61]

Emergence of Fukō no tegami

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The "Fukō no tegami" is thought to have emerged when the "good luck" element faded from the "Kōun no tegami," leaving only the threat of misfortune,[62][42] possibly starting as a simple prank.[63][64] Its main period of prevalence began around the late 1960s or 1970.[65][66][44][62][41] Sources pinpoint the start between 1965[66] and autumn 1970.[41][67] It spread from Kyushu eastward, reaching Osaka, Nagoya, and Tokyo by 1969,[65][68][69] and became a nationwide phenomenon by November 1970.[70] It saw resurgences, notably in late 1971 after a brief lull,[71] and smaller waves in the 1990s (1990–1992, 1998).[72][73] The letters spread widely among schoolchildren as well as adults,[29] possibly linked to the rise of school ghost stories during Japan's high-growth period.[47]

Social Impact and Reactions

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Results of a Sankei Shimbun survey on "Fukō no tegami", 17 November 1970.

The "Fukō no tegami" became a significant social issue, frequently covered by media[22] and becoming a buzzword in 1970.[74] Public reaction was mixed:

  • Fear and Anxiety: Many recipients, even those dismissing it as superstition, felt unease or fear.[75] Police received numerous calls from worried citizens.[65] Some experienced genuine distress, like a woman developing chronic hives after receiving one,[76] or suffering from neurosis.[77] The dilemma of potentially causing misfortune to others by forwarding the letter caused significant guilt and anxiety.[75][78]
  • Dismissal and Anger: Many recognized it as a prank and discarded the letters.[79] Some were angered by the nuisance and perceived maliciousness.[65]
  • Compliance: A 1970 Sankei Shimbun survey found that while most people found the letters foolish or annoying, 17.4% of recipients admitted to forwarding them, often out of fear or a desire to avoid potential misfortune.[80] Women, particularly office ladies (OLs), were more likely to forward them.[80]
  • Malicious Use: Some individuals likely used the letters intentionally to harass or frighten people they disliked.[75][81][82]
  • Media/Cultural Impact: The letters impacted magazine pen pal sections, leading to their discontinuation due to subscribers being targeted.[83][10][84] They became a common theme in manga (see #In fiction).

Notable Recipients

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  • Actress Kimiko Ikegami received one in 1975 shortly before her grandfather, Kabuki actor Bandō Mitsugorō VIII, died unexpectedly. Though likely coincidental, the timing fueled public outrage against the letters.[85][86][87]
  • Kinko Koseki, wife of composer Yūji Koseki, wrote a widely publicized newspaper column in 1978 after receiving several letters, urging readers to have the courage to destroy them and overcome misfortune through effort.[88][89][90][91]

Institutional Responses

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Various organizations implemented measures to deal with the influx and public anxiety:

  • Police: Responses ranged from dismissing the letters as non-criminal[65] to actively collecting them in designated boxes (e.g., "Seven Lucky Gods Post" in Atsugi, Kanagawa; "Purification Box" in Niigata)[92][43] or offering to receive them directly (Chiba Prefectural Police).[92] Some threatened prosecution if content crossed into threats.[93]
  • Post Office: Initially struggled due to mail secrecy laws preventing screening.[90] Later procedures allowed recipients to refuse delivery or return letters for disposal as undeliverable mail.[94][71] Some post offices set up collection boxes and coordinated with temples for ritual burning (e.g., Gifu/Nagoya partnership with Tokurin-ji Temple).[95][96][97][98]
  • Temples and Shrines: Many offered to accept the letters for ritual purification (oharai) and burning (otakiage), providing psychological relief. Notable examples include temples on Mount Kōya,[99] Hase-dera in Tokyo,[43][83] Zen temples,[100] temples in Nagano,[101] Ikuta Shrine in Kobe,[102][103] Hikawa Shrine in Saitama,[43] and Kōfuku Shrine in Miyazaki (which received over 4,000 letters).[104][105]

Variations and Evolution

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Over time, the basic "Fukō no tegami" formula mutated:

  • Guinness Challenge Letter: Appeared in the 1990s, claiming to be an attempt to set a Guinness World Record for the longest mail chain, sometimes mentioning Cub Scouts. This was officially denied by Guinness and the Scout Association.[106][107][108][109][110] Some still included threats of misfortune if the chain was broken.[108][109]
  • Ebu Letter (エブレター): Circulated in 1998, promising romantic success (finding a lover, being confessed to) if forwarded, and relationship failure if stopped.[72][111]
  • Bō no tegami (棒の手紙, "Stick Letter"):
External image
image icon Example of a Bō no tegami - Hiroshi Yamamoto's SF Secret Base
   A prominent variant emerging in the mid-1990s (around August 1996 from Miyagi[112]). It originated from a typographical error where the kanji characters for "unlucky" (不幸, fukō) were misread or mistyped, perhaps due to poor handwriting or early word processor issues, resulting in the character "棒" (bō, meaning "stick" or "rod"). Due to the instruction "Do not change the text," this typo was faithfully reproduced and spread, eventually becoming more common than the original "Fukō" version.[113][114][115] It often contained nonsensical passages resulting from cumulative copying errors ("unwell days" became "unwell white"; "handwritten or copy" became "forecast, hippy also OK").[116][112] Writer Hiroshi Yamamoto analyzed it, noting internal contradictions (like adding names/numbers despite the "do not change" rule).[113] It faded around 1998, possibly as errors made it unintelligible.[117] The shift to horizontal writing, especially with computers, may have facilitated the initial misreading of vertically adjacent characters.[116]

Internet and SNS versions in Japan

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With the rise of the internet and mobile communication, the chain letter phenomenon adapted:

  • Email (Fukō no mēru): Appeared in the 1990s, often lacking the elaborate backstories of paper versions and featuring more direct threats.[18] Spread within corporations via internal email by 1995.[118] Mobile phone/PHS versions emerged around 1999.[19][20] Common themes involved vengeful ghosts seeking killers (e.g., "Kikuchi Ayane" chain[62][119]) or friends seeking revenge for murdered pals ("Tachibana Ayumi" chain, circulating since ~2001).[62][120][121]
    See also: Chain mail § Tachibana Ayumi
    Lighter versions existed, like the "Unlucky Takagi Boo" email threatening weight gain if not forwarded.[122][123][124] Forwarding threatening emails could lead to legal trouble, as seen in a 2000 Yamaguchi case.[125] In response, the Japan Data Communications Association set up dedicated email addresses in 2005 to receive and delete these messages, collecting tens of thousands.[126][127][128] Surveys showed misfortune/fortune types dominated, though many linked to adult sites.[129]
  • Social Networking Services (SNS): Since around 2011, chain messages migrated to SNS like Twitter/X (via retweets/reposts) and LINE.[130][120] LINE versions often threaten loss of friendship if not forwarded to a large number of contacts (e.g., 20 people), sometimes causing real social friction.[64][131] Some include phone numbers purported to verify the threat, likely belonging to unrelated victims of harassment[132] or potentially linked to organized crime.[133] Surveys show high prevalence among teenagers.[134] Online forums like Yahoo! Chiebukuro receive numerous相談 requests.[134] The ease of acquiring smartphones makes children vulnerable.[135][136]
  • Online Forums: Copy-pasted threats spread on platforms like 2channel/5channel, sometimes framed as "self-responsibility" stories where sharing a narrative about a curse supposedly dilutes the risk to the sharer.[137]
  • Image-based Chains: The "Hand of God" cloud image circulated widely from ~2007, promising good luck if forwarded.[138] However, security firms warned it could be linked to malware.[139][140] The image itself was identified as a processed version of a Goatse.cx shock image.[141][139] Its resurgence when shared by celebrities prompted renewed warnings.[142][143]
  • TikTok Trend: Around 2022-2023, "Good things happen sound" (#いいことが起きる音源) videos trended among Japanese high school students, claiming that using the sound would grant wishes.[144][145][146][147] This represents a shift towards positive "luck" chains, possibly reflecting generational attitudes.[146]

While digital copying reduces textual errors seen in handwritten chains,[73][148] the phenomenon continues to evolve across new media platforms.[137][138]

Analysis of Popularity in Japan

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Several factors may explain the particular prevalence and impact of these chain letters in Japan:

  • Social Anxiety: Periods of heightened social anxiety (e.g., post-WWI, 1970s turmoil, 1990s cults/economic issues) may create fertile ground for such phenomena.[149][37][29][73]
  • Cultural Context: A background of folk beliefs involving spreading messages for luck or protection,[37] and perhaps a cultural tendency to accept rather than confront misfortune,[35] might make Japanese society more susceptible than Western cultures.[35]
  • Letter-Writing Culture: The strong post-war culture of letter writing and pen pals among schoolchildren provided an existing network for chain letters to spread.[10]
  • Outlet for Anxiety: Especially for children in structured environments, the letters might have served as a channel for expressing or displacing anxieties they couldn't otherwise articulate.[35]
  • Modern Factors: Population shifts during high-growth periods,[73] the rise of spiritual movements,[73] and later the ease and low cost of digital communication[126][150] contributed to continued spread.

Relation to Urban Legends

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The structure of "Fukō no tegami" – receive a message, pass it on within a timeframe to a set number of people or suffer consequences – mirrors the transmission mechanism of certain Japanese urban legends.

  • Kashima-san: Hearing the story of Kashima-san supposedly leads to a deadly encounter unless the story is retold to others within a time limit.[151][152][153] Early reports explicitly called Kashima-san the "spoken word version" of the Lucky/Unlucky Letter.[154][155][156] Researchers suggest the legend originated from the chain letter, with the letter format dropping away over time.[149][157]
  • Sacchan: The urban legend about the fatal fourth verse of the children's song "Sacchan" spread via chain email in the late 1990s, warning that knowing the lyrics invites disaster unless told to others quickly.[124][158][159]

This pattern suggests chain letters influenced the structure and spread of these modern Japanese legends.[8][67]

In Fiction

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The "Fukō no tegami" became a common plot device in Japanese popular culture, reflecting its societal penetration:

  • Doraemon (1977 episode "The Unlucky Letter Fan Club"): Nobita receives a letter and struggles with the moral dilemma, before Doraemon uses a gadget to identify the sender (Suneo) for retribution.[160][47][161] Educational analyses highlight the episode's exploration of information literacy and moral choices.[162]
  • Matarō ga Kuru!! (c. 1970s): The bullied protagonist Matarō receives a letter and uses supernatural powers for revenge.[75][163] Both this and Doraemon feature bullied protagonists overcoming the letter via extraordinary means, possibly reflecting the authors' empathy.[75]
  • Gaki Deka (manga series starting 1974): Includes parodies and references to the unlucky letter phenomenon.[citation needed]
  • Kyōfu Shimbun (c. 1970s episode "Unlucky Letter"): A boy sending letters is punished by spirits, though the story dismisses the letters themselves as nonsense.[164][165]
  • Tensai Bakabon (1974 episode "The Unlucky Peanut Letter"): Parodies the concept with a letter warning recipients will die if they eat the enclosed peanut within 48 hours.[166][167]
  • Chibi Maruko-chan (1990s episode "Maruko Receives an Unlucky Letter"): Reflects author Momoko Sakura's childhood experiences during the 1970s peak; Maruko is terrified until her father dismisses and destroys the letter.[168][44][169]
  • Ring (1991 novel and subsequent adaptations): The core mechanic (watch cursed video, die in 7 days unless you copy and show it to someone else) is frequently compared to the unlucky letter chain.[170][171] The novel itself makes the comparison.[172][173] Critics see the film as capitalizing on the "viral malice" structure of chain letters.[24][174][175] The film's popularity coincided with the rise of "unlucky emails," which were often described as "like The Ring."[20] A "Sadako Mail" variant explicitly invoked the film's antagonist.[124]

See also

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References

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  53. ^ "イヤハヤ これはこれは罪作りな『幸運の手紙』ヤンキーのいたづらがたゝって 今北専売局長始め名士連六十余名にお灸" [My Oh My, What Sinful 'Lucky Letters'; Yankee Prank Scolds Monopoly Bureau Chief Imakita and Over 60 Other Dignitaries]. Tokyo Asahi Shimbun (in Japanese). 1 August 1926. p. 7.
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  65. ^ a b c d e "こんどは不幸の手紙 こんな不安を投込むなんて…… "ケシカラン罪"だが……と警視庁" [Now It's Unlucky Letters; How Dare They Instill Such Anxiety... "Outrageous Crime" But... Says Metropolitan Police Dept.]. Asahi Shimbun (in Japanese) (Tokyo Morning ed.). 31 October 1970. p. 24.
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  71. ^ a b "「不幸の手紙」しつこいイタズラ 届け出1月から118通 破り捨てるのが一番です 警視庁" ["Unlucky Letter" Persistent Prank; 118 Reports Since January; Tearing Up is Best, says Metro Police]. Asahi Shimbun (in Japanese) (Tokyo Morning ed.). 1 May 1972. p. 20.
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  106. ^ "こちら社会部 ギネス便乗の不幸の手紙届く" [Social Affairs Desk: Unlucky Letter Piggybacking on Guinness Arrives]. Yomiuri Shimbun (in Japanese) (Western Morning ed.). 12 December 1992. p. 23.
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  113. ^ a b Yamamoto Hiroshi. "これが「棒の手紙」だ!" [This is the "Stick Letter"!]. Yamamoto Hiroshi no SF Himitsu Kichi (Hiroshi Yamamoto's SF Secret Base). Archived from the original on 28 January 2018. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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[edit]
Look up chain letter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fukō no tegami (Unlucky Letters).
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chain letters.


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